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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Microbial and AMR Profiles of Mandulog
River, Iligan City, Philippines: Insights into
Ecosystem Health and Long-Term Flood Legacy
1
Basic Science Department, College of Medicine, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Airport Road, Riyadh
11564, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Biology, Sultan Kudarat State University, Tacurong City 9800, Philippines
3
Department of Biological Sciences, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT), Iligan City
9200, Philippines
4
JCI Senate Philippines, Kasadya, Manticao, Philippines
5
Molecular Systematics and Conservation Genomics Laboratory, Center for Biodiversity Studies and Conservation,
Premier Research Institute of Science and Mathematics, MSU-IIT, Iligan City 9200, Philippines
Submission date: 2025-09-09
Acceptance date: 2026-01-02
Online publication date: 2026-04-16
Corresponding author
Sharon Rose Tabugo
Department of Biological Sciences, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Andres Bonifacio Ave., 9200, Iligan City, Philippines
Department of Biological Sciences, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Andres Bonifacio Ave., 9200, Iligan City, Philippines
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
The Mandulog River, in Iligan City, Philippines, sustains local livelihoods, fisheries, and
biodiversity, but is subjected to perpetual pollution and the aftereffects of Typhoon Sendong in 2011. We
utilized 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing and Chan Zuckerberg ID analysis to screen for bacterial
community profiles in the upstream, midstream, and downstream areas, and to detect antimicrobial
resistance (AMR) genes. The midstream region (M1, M2, M3) was revealed as the most diverse area.
The microbiomes harbored pollutant-degrading genera (Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas, Bacillus,
Methylobacterium), mediating nutrient cycling and bioremediation. Yet, these co-occurred with AMR
determinants – tetA(60) and aminoglycoside acetyltransferases (AAC(6’)-Ia, AAC(6’)-Iaj) – linked to
wastewater, agriculture, and aquaculture. Their persistence suggests that sediments and biofilms act as
long-term reservoirs of resistance, mobilized during high-flow conditions. Results validate our proposed
"Dual-Score Hypothesis", which conceptualizes microbial communities following disturbance as a
symphony of harmonious (biodegradation, nutrient cycling) and discordant notes (AMR, pathogens), the
balance between which defines ecosystem health and public risk, thereby highlighting a dual function as
providers of ecosystem services and as sentinels of ecological stress. Policy interventions should include microbial and AMR monitoring in surveillance programs, decrease pollutant loads, replenish riparian
buffers, and enhance antibiotic stewardship to uphold ecosystem integrity and public security in tropical
urban rivers.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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| eISSN: | 2083-5906 |
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