Introduction

Food producers increasingly often reach for forgotten crop species, which is driven by, among other things, the growing fashion for low-processed, organic, and ecological products [1]. One such crop is spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.), characterized by higher contents of protein, fats (including unsaturated fatty acids), and dietary fiber, and also a lower energy value compared to common wheat [2, 3]. Most modern spelt cultivars are crosses between specific cultivars of common wheat and spelt [4, 5]. Despite its strong relationship with common wheat, spelt strongly stands out in terms of morphology as well as soil and agrotechnical demands [6]. The grain of spelt wheat, of ancient cultivars in particular, is non-threshable, which is considered a drawback in further processing. However, spelt outperforms wheat in certain agronomical aspects because it is more resistant to selected biotic factors (e.g., diseases) and abiotic stress (e.g., cold). In addition, it has fewer demands regarding seed dressing, chemical crop protection, and nitrogen fertilization, which makes it a viable candidate for organic or low-input agricultural practices, especially in regions with poorer conditions for common wheat cultivation [5]. On the other hand, a low yielding potential of spelt wheat presents a bottleneck that impedes its cultivation [7]. There is a paucity of data in the available literature on the impact of intensifying cultivation technology on grain yield and cultivation profitability; hence, investigations addressing these problems are still relevant.

Actions undertaken by agricultural producers aim at maximizing incomes [8] since economic effectiveness is one of the major aspects of cereal production, next to grain yields and quality [9]. However, most research has focused only on producing high grain yields while neglecting the importance of economic outcomes [10]. Meanwhile, Jat et al. [11] emphasized that harnessing various cultivation technologies may affect cultivation profitability due to differences in yields and production costs. The cultivation of cereals is facilitated by relatively easy production technology, relatively low labor intensity, and convenience of storage and transport [12]. Nevertheless, decisions made by farmers are always associated with the risk of production outcomes [13] and the possibilities and prices of sales. Today, the choice of a crop species for production is mainly driven by the income expected per 1 h of crops [14]. Making production decisions in agriculture in the current conditions becomes even more difficult because agricultural producers are obliged to comply with the requirements of the common agricultural policy from a new financial perspective and because of the unstable situation in the grain market [15].

Therefore, choosing the cultivation method of cereals, including spelt wheat, depends not only on natural determinants or expected quality outcomes but also on economic factors [16]. Both the inputs related to the cultivation system and the effects achieved are important elements determining cultivation profitability [17]. Direct production costs (seed material, fertilizers, plant protection agents, and plantation insurance) play a crucial role in this case. In light of sustainable development assumptions and the implementation of the European Green Deal, environmental conditions are also increasingly often considered as drivers of production decisions on farms [18]. The EU strategy assumes, i.e., a substantial reduction in the use of plant production agents and mineral fertilizers by 2030 [19]. Taking care of the quality of the natural environment and natural resources is not only a requirement of civilization but also a prerequisite for effective agricultural production [20]. Therefore, when making decisions on the choice of production technology, it is worth taking into account not only the economic results but also the level of production intensity, which determines the extent of agriculture’s impact on the natural environment. The most frequently used indicators of agricultural production intensity, understood as the intensity of production, include the level of inputs incurred per unit of agricultural land area [21].

Due to changing market conditions and increasing environmental requirements, there is a need to monitor agricultural production technologies so that production decisions are based on economic and environmental premises. Taking this into account, this study aimed to assess the production and economic results of spelt wheat cultivation under different fertilization and fungicide protection conditions.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted at the Experimental Station in Czesławice, the University of Life Sciences in Lublin (Poland). In three replications, a field experiment was established on loess-derived soil, classified as an II soil quality class, in the split-block system. The single plot area was 15.0 m², and the winter form of spelt wheat cv. Rokosz was tested. This cultivar was listed in the COBORU register in 2012 and is characterized by a high-yielding potential and a low chaff contribution to the crop yield. The seed rate was 130 kg·ha^-1. Common wheat was used as the previous crop.

The experiment aimed to examine the response of spelt wheat to various strategies of crop protection against fungal diseases and various levels of nitrogen fertilization. Fungicide protection variants were as follows:

A – no fungicide protection – control plot,

B – double fungicide treatment – Yamato 303 SE (methyl thiophanate + tetraconazole) at the BBCH– 30-31 stage (dose: 1.5 L·ha^-1), and Optan 183 SE (pyraclostrobin + epoxiconazole) at the BBCH–30-59 stage (dose: 1.5 L·ha^-1),

C – three-fold fungicide treatment – Yamato 303 SE (methyl thiophanate + tetraconazole) at the BBCH–30- 31 stage (dose: 1.5 L·ha^-1), Optan 183 SE (pyraclostrobin + epoxiconazole) at the BBCH–30-59 stage (dose: 1.5 L·ha^-1), Wirtuoz 520 EC (prochloraz + tebuconazole + proquinazide) at the BBCH–20-59 stage (dose: 1.0 L·ha^{- 1}),

D – four-fold fungicide treatment – Yamato 303 SE (methyl thiophanate + tetraconazole) at the BBCH–30- 31 stage (dose: 1.5 L·ha^-1), Optan 183 SE (pyraclostrobin + epoxiconazole) at the BBCH–30-59 stage (dose: 1.5 L·ha^-1), Wirtuoz 520 EC (prochloraz + tebuconazole + proquinazide) at the BBCH–20-59 stage (dose: 1.0 L·ha^{- 1}), and Tilt Turbo 575 EC (propiconazole + fenpropidin) at the BBCH–30-59 stage (dose: 0.9 L·ha^-1).

The second experimental factor was nitrogen fertilization doses, i.e.:

N₀ – no nitrogen fertilization (control plot)

N₁ – 70 kg·ha^-1

N₂ – 100 kg·ha^-1

N₃ – 130 kg·ha^-1

Nitrogen was applied in the form of 34% ammonium nitrate in three divided doses: 60% of the dose in the springtime, immediately after the onset of vegetation (BBCH–14-16); 20% of the dose at the stem shoot stage (BBCH–21-23); and 20% of the dose prior to the ear formation stage (BBCH–37-39).

Before spelt wheat sowing, phosphorus and potassium fertilization were applied as follows: P – 26.2 kg·ha^-1 (triple superphosphate) and K – 58.1 kg·ha^-1 (potassium salt), and typical plow cultivation was performed. In each study year, wheat was sown with a plot seeder in the third decade of September.

The same protection against weeds and pests was carried out on all experimental plots. Herbicide treatment was carried out at the BBCH–21-29 stage of spelt wheat with the Chisel 75 WG preparation (thifensulfuron-methyl + chlorsulfuron) at 60 g·ha^-1 with the Trend 90 EC adjuvant (ethoxylated isodecyl alcohol) at a concentration of 0.1%. In turn, Decis Mega 50 EW (deltamethrin) was applied at 0.2 L·ha^-1 against pests.

The study’s time frame was 2019–2021, which enabled the analysis of economic results of spelt wheat cultivation under various market and atmospheric conditions. In order to accomplish the study goal, selected economic categories were used in accordance with the EU income statement and the AGROKOSZTY system, including the gross margin and operating income. The first of these values is the annual value of production obtained from 1 ha of crops reduced by direct costs incurred for this production [22]. Direct costs include cost components that can, undoubtedly, be ascribed to a given activity. Their amount is proportional to the production scale and directly affects the size (volume and value) of production [22]. In turn, the income from activity (operating income) represents the surplus generated after deducting direct and indirect costs from the production value, which is increased by subsidies. The method of calculating these economic categories is presented below [23]:

The incomes of agricultural producers in the EU are supported by subsidies received under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The operating income was, therefore, increased by the rates of subsidies received on the production of cereals. The calculation of the gross margin and operating income was extended by the analysis of the profitability index and selected economic efficiency indicators:

1) The unit cost of production of 1 dt of grain [EURꞏdt^-1],

2) The total production value per EUR 1 of direct costs [EUR],

3) The gross margin per 1 dt of the main product [EURꞏdt^-1].

The profitability index was computed as the ratio of the production value per 1 ha to the total production costs and is expressed in percent:

Where:

PI – Profitability Index

P – production value

C – total cost

Individual variants of spelt wheat cultivation were referred to in the subsequent sections of this manuscript, as denoted in Table 1.

Results and Discussion

Discussion

High consumer demand for food products eliciting health-promoting benefits, awareness of agricultural producers about the need to protect the natural environment, and programs promoting pro-environmental activities mean that agricultural producers are inclined to choose crop species that tolerate minimized mineral fertilization and limited plant protection and have a unique chemical composition [24-27]. Spelt wheat perfectly fits the needs of today’s food market and trends in agricultural production [28]. Many studies addressing spelt wheat have focused on its productivity and nutritional value, but no studies merge production and economic aspects. In this study, the profitability of spelt wheat cultivation was assessed based on grain yields, which depended on the intensification of nitrogen fertilization and fungicide protection.

Nitrogen fertilization is a key element of agricultural technology that affects crop yields [29, 30], whereas, as Suchowilska et al. [31] claimed, spelt responds poorly to high nitrogen doses compared to common wheat. The study demonstrated that spelt wheat grain yield increased with increasing fertilization doses, but in some protection variants, only up to a nitrogen dose of 100 kg·ha^-1. Similar results were obtained by Hury et al. [30], who showed that nitrogen fertilization caused a significant linear increase in grain yield up to a certain threshold, which resulted in a decline in grain yield. In addition, they emphasized that the response of spelt wheat to the intensity of nitrogen fertilization also depended on genetic traits – old spelt cultivars may be less responsive to a fertilizer dose increase, while the new ones respond more intensively to fertilization. This is because spelt wheat is genetically diverse, and its old cultivars differ from their new breeding lines in terms of agrotechnical, environmental, and productivity requirements [32]. Various responses of spelt wheat to mineral fertilization were also demonstrated by Stępień et al. [33], Andruszczak et al. [24], and Andruszczak [34]. Many studies have also pinpointed that spelt stands do not require intensive chemical protection [35, 36]. In the present study, the grain yield of spelt wheat varied in the individual experimental years under the influence of intensified crop protection. In each growing season and all variants of nitrogen fertilization, introducing a fungicide treatment for protection increased the grain yield of spelt wheat, while increasing the number of fungicide treatments from 3 to 4 usually caused no increase in the grain yield. An experiment conducted by Pospišil et al. [37] showed that the fungicide treatment had a significant effect on the grain yield only in one of the two years studied due to severe attacks of powdery mildew (Blumeria gramini) and leaf rust (Puccinia recondita). Other studies have also confirmed the high tolerance of spelt wheat to minimize crop protection and its suitability for organic cultivation [24, 36, 38, 39], while, as shown in a previous study by Haliniarz et al. [28], the response of this species to extensive crop protection was cultivar-dependent. Production outcomes, environmental concerns, and economic effects should be considered when choosing a spelt production technology. Dolijanović et al. [40] have emphasized that intensive agriculture makes the soil barren and contributes to excessive water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions without ensuring the necessary sustainability of food production. Modern agriculture is based on the so-called sustainable intensification of agricultural production, which involves increasing agricultural production with no adverse effects on the natural environment and no need to convert more non-agricultural land [41]. Within this concept, a key role is played by integrated plant protection, which places great emphasis on reducing the use of chemical plant protection agents [42], and integrated nutrient management, which involves the careful use of chemical fertilizers [43]. The choice of production systems requiring lesser inputs is a key driving force for the transformation of the agricultural sector towards a sustainable production system since sustainable agriculture is associated with food security, which requires the availability of food with a high nutritional value as well as the security and economic stability of the human population [44].

The changing situation in the agricultural market requires continuous monitoring of farmers’ costs and income. This is also confirmed by the research by Skarżyńska and Pietrych [12], who pointed to the need to minimize production costs in order to maximize income. Furthermore, Boczar and Błażejczyk-Majka [45] have explained that economic efficiency is influenced not only by the incurred expenditures but also by production costs and production value, which is, in turn, a result of grain yield and grain sales price. Research on the profitability of cereal cultivation has proven its variability, but recent years have brought greater than usual instability to the cereal market. There is a clear research gap regarding the profitability of spelt production, especially in various conditions related to production technology. Therefore, it is difficult to directly relate the present research results to the findings reported by other authors. However, such comparative analyses can be found in relation to organic spelt wheat production. For example, based on research conducted in Serbia, Đuričin et al. [1] showed that organic spelt production was economically profitable, primarily due to its significantly higher market price than conventional production. Similar conclusions were reached by Rapčan et al. [46], who conducted a two-year experiment with spelt cultivation in Croatia, and by Dolijanović et al. [40], who formulated a recommendation that the spelt production management strategy should harmonize with the soil and agroecological features of the region and aim at cost reduction. Winnicki and Żuk-Gołaszewska [25] have also emphasized that knowledge of production costs is an important element in improving the competitiveness of spelt cultivation. Their research on comparing production and economic results of organic cultivation of common wheat and spelt wheat showed that the total costs associated with spelt production cultivars significantly exceeded those of common wheat production. This difference was attributed to direct costs, particularly seed prices. Spelt generated slightly higher incomes, which was the effect of higher market prices for spelt grain. Furthermore, research by Sugár et al. [47] has demonstrated that spelt is a viable alternative to common wheat in low-N production on both low-quality and fertile soils despite the increasing risk of lodging with increasing nitrogen fertilization levels.

Conclusions

A specific trait of plant production is its dependence on weather conditions. However, as studies have shown, this is not the only factor affecting grain yields and profitability of production. Because farmers are price-takers, their incomes depend to a large extent on market conditions. Therefore, decisions regarding the choice of production technology should be based on economic aspects on the one hand and environmental concerns on the other. The need to alleviate the adverse impact of agricultural production on the natural environment results from the assumptions of the sustainable development concept and the CAP strategies adopted in the EU.

The present study attempted to fill the research gap in the economic aspects of spelt cultivation. Its scope covered the profitability of spelt production in three years, differing in terms of market conditions. In addition to production technology, it determined the profitability of cultivation in individual variants of nitrogen fertilization and fungicide protection.

The study results showed that the profitability of spelt wheat production was determined by multiple factors, i.e., market conditions (such as purchase prices and costs) and weather conditions, as shown by grain yield differences in the individual study years. However, the greatest income differences were due to fertilization and fungicide protection variants. Production intensification increased spelt wheat yields but also generated higher costs. The most intensive cultivation variant allowed for the highest yield to be achieved, which did not increase proportionally to the costs incurred. On the other hand, the highest income was obtained from plots with pro-ecological variants of fungicide protection and nitrogen fertilization, i.e., variant AN₃ in 2019, variant AN₂ in 2020, and variant BN₂ in 2021. In these conditions, the spelt wheat grain yield was lower than the highest yield obtained in a given year by only 1% in 2019 and 2021 and 6% in 2020. This justifies the advisability of growing spelt wheat using a technology based on moderate mineral fertilization and limited chemical protection.

The study’s results also show how important it is to rationalize farm costs and calculate crop cultivation’s profitability. This allows for a more effective selection of production technology and crop rotation on the farm. Despite lower grain yields, a higher income was obtained, and the workload and the use of plant protection products and fertilizers were also reduced, which should be assessed positively in the context of the environmental goals of sustainable development. In addition, these findings indicate that production decisions in agriculture require a multi-faceted approach, including both technological aspects and related yields, as well as the market (economic) perspective and environmental concerns.