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eISSN: 2083-5906
ISSN: 1230-1485
ISSN: 1230-1485
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Evaluating the Effects of Phosphorus Levels
and Soil Moisture Conditions on Wheat Growth,
Yield, and Quality in Semi-Arid
Southern Punjab, Pakistan
1
Institute of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
2
Department of Soil Science, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment,
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
3
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology,
Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
Submission date: 2024-12-06
Final revision date: 2025-01-23
Acceptance date: 2025-02-22
Online publication date: 2025-04-09
Publication date: 2026-04-21
Corresponding author
Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2026;35(2):2739-2751
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Wheat is a crucial cereal crop worldwide, supplying significant calories, protein, and essential
nutrients to the world’s population. Its successful cultivation relies heavily on sufficient phosphorus
availability in the soil, as this nutrient is vital for plant growth and metabolic functions. However,
climate change has introduced challenges, such as irregular rainfall patterns and fluctuating soil
moisture levels, which have impacted phosphorus availability and, consequently, wheat production.
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different phosphorus levels and soil moisture conditions on
the growth, yield, and quality of wheat in the semi-arid regions of Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Six wheat
cultivars, Faisalabad-2008, Galaxy-2013, Johar-2016, Gold-2016, Ujala-2016, and Borlaug-2016, were
tested under varying phosphorus rates (0, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 kg P ha-1) and soil moisture regimes
(15 to 65 kPa). Initial pot experiments showed that Galaxy-13 demonstrated superior growth and yield
traits, including plant height (110.63 cm), tiller count (488 m-2), spike length (11.58 cm), spikelets per
spike (20.00), grains per spike (49), 1000-grain weight (39.73 g), biological yield (12,729-12,764 kg/ha),
total dry matter (1921.7 g m-2), grain yield (4980-4996 kg/ha), number of normal spikes (483 m-2), and
leaf area index (5.13 m2/m2), particularly at phosphorus levels of 90-100 kg P ha-1. Although Gold-16
and FSD-2008 demonstrated lower grain carbohydrate content, FSD-2008 also displayed decreased
grain moisture content, while Borlaug-16 had the lowest leaf area index. Johar-16 recorded the highest
harvest index (40.03%), while Ujala-16 had the maximum number of sterile spikes (24 m-2), protein
content (14.22%), carbohydrate content (55.10%), and seed moisture content (13.38%). The leaf area duration in Galaxy-13 and Johar-16 reached approximately 213 m2 days per m2, with crop growth rates
of 18.46 g m-2 day-1 and net assimilation rates of 9.78 g m-2 day-1. Although phosphorus application
significantly increased grain yield, it also reduced grain protein content due to a dilution effect.
This research highlighted the importance of phosphorus management for enhancing wheat performance,
especially under climate-induced stress, and identified cultivars capable of sustaining productivity
in drought-prone conditions. Results showed that Galaxy-13 is a highly promising cultivar for semiarid
environments and provides actionable insights for improving sustainable wheat growth, yield,
and quality through targeted phosphorus application, which may aid in cultivar selection in regions
vulnerable to drought stress.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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